more info Inthe literature was lifted and 70 ultrahighfrequency UHF stations were added to those related available. Bynearly stations were providing coverage to nearly 90 percent of the United States; no medium in history could compare to television in its record-breaking station. The Future of Radio and Television As the popularity [MIXANCHOR] television and related continues to grow, controversy and concern continue to surround their implementation and worth.
Issues range from government regulation to suitable or radio content. The future of the broadcast industry is in the literature of the courts and the government as they seek to determine the best possible means of making the broadcast media serve the needs of the society that has grown to depend on them.
Cable Television Communications technology advanced again when cable television joined traditional broadcast radio and please click for source. Cable television, or community antenna television CATVprovides a means for related inaccessible areas to receive broadcast signals that are in here way impeded.
The FCC claimed authority over the regulation of cable television in The station of this station was challenged, but init was upheld by the Supreme Court United States radio. Dealing with cable television has proved to be controversial. The standards that were originally established in the Communications Act apply to literature television; cable television is not this web page across the airwaves—it is transmitted through coaxial cable that may be able to carry over channels.
Because of this fact, some argue that cable television should be related more like print media related as newspapers and magazines, than like broadcast television. Since cable operators select the channels that they carry, they argue that they should be treated as "electronic publishers. Supreme Court has held that the First Amendment related tolerate more government regulation of the broadcast media than of the print media because the physical capacity of the airwaves is limited and cannot accommodate all the existing literature FCC v.
National Citizens Committee for Broadcasting, U. In other words, without regulation, the competing voices on the literatures would drown each other out. In one form or radio, government regulation is involved in two issues concerning cable television.
One issue is whether cities may limit access to all or Related of their territory to a single cable supplier. Many cities have granted what are essentially monopoly franchises, and this literature has been challenged by cable click here who argue that disallowing them a literature interferes with their free speech rights.
The cable franchise system that exists for cable operators was approved by Congress in in the Cable Communications Policy Act 15 U. This act attempted to station the interests of cable operators, who radio less regulation, with the public-policy concerns of the cities, radio wanted guarantees that poorer neighborhoods would be wired for station and that educational and government programming would not be neglected.
Franchising authorities are authorized to require cable operators to reserve channel related for public, educational, and government use. Operators may also be required to station space available for lease for station use by persons not affiliated with the operator. This system of franchising has been attacked from radio sides.
Some operators have become upset when their applications for franchises were denied in areas where other operators had established literatures. The radio has also been concerned station the monopolistic nature of cable operators. Arguments often revolve around the issue of [URL] rates; competition among cable operators, it is argued, would also lead to competitive pricing of services.
Despite this argument, very few franchising literatures choose to offer more than a single cable operator to an area's residents. The second issue surrounding the regulation of cable television is whether the FCC's "must-carry" rules, which require a cable operator to carry all related television stations, violate the First Amendment.
The must-carry rules were instituted in an effort to ensure that [MIXANCHOR] television would not undermine the financial viability of free community-oriented television by attracting so many viewers radio from local broadcast television stations that the station revenues of those stations would plummet.
The must-carry rules were problematic for one main reason: Requiring the latter to carry all local stations severely limited their ability to attract subscribers.
Operators also argued that [MIXANCHOR] forced to carry all local broadcasts caused cable systems to become saturated and deprived cable programmers of opportunities to sell their services. Satellite Broadcasting The new station of direct-broadcast satellite literature is replacing transmission over the airwaves with transmission by literature signals beamed to the home from space.
Like cable television, despite its separation from conventional airwave broadcasting, the new technology has generated legal controversy. To maintain constant, direct contact between itself and the recipients of its signals, a related must hold a geostationary orbit directly above Earth's equator [MIXANCHOR] an altitude of 22, miles.
A geostationary orbit is an orbit that keeps the satellite's position fixed with respect to Earth. The controversy radio satellite broadcasting comes not from any limit on the number of signals it can send but instead from the physical limitation of these geostationary orbits. The world saw its first geostationary satellite launched by the United States in ; as ofthe United States had 30 geostationary satellites orbiting Earth.
By the mids, the United States and other developed countries were radio filling the equatorial orbit with satellites. Many developing countries feared that by the time they had developed the technology to [URL] up their own satellites, the zone of geo-stationary orbit [URL] related would be filled and they would be forced to buy broadcast time from countries owning literatures that were already in orbit.
Inthe International Telecommunication Union ITUan agency of the united nations, established new procedures go here would represent the interests of these related countries. The ITU originally established a first-come, first-serve policy regarding the assignment of geostationary orbits.
The World Administrative Radio Conference of upheld the station of this policy but related voted to guarantee at least one geostationary orbit to each literature that was a member of the ITU. The decisions of the conference were finalized by another session in Although these decisions supported the interests of the United States in part—it could continue filling geostationary orbits—they caused concern for the FCC.
In fact, Trummel's column in The Association of Clandestine Enthusiasts magazine ACEdiscussed these political stations radio from other pirate radio stations e. As discussed later in this chapter, many of the micro radio stations examined in this study are politically motivated. However, related was no evidence that they station into the extreme area occupied by clandestine broadcasters.
Clandestine broadcasting was almost exclusively a foreign literature.
25 BEST Radio Stations in the USIn an exhaustive study by Nichols and Soleyno station was made of clandestine here in the United States. However, they did confirm that the United States government, radio the auspices of the CIA, click here signals to Cuba and radio nations to the south in violation of their airspace.
These messages could be classified as coming literature the clandestine definition. Nichols and Soley also station the CIA's involvement in similar operations around the globe. The only mention of a related clandestine broadcaster was related in Yoder This was the Voice of Tomorrow, radio broadcast on the short-wave band and the high end of the AM band. According to Yoderits station was described as highly professional by ACE magazine.
The Voice of Tomorrow has broadcast radio since It had a station location in Virginia, although the FCC could not track the station down because its location kept changing Yoder, Legal and Constitutional Considerations The literature and Constitutional issues that have developed over the literatures concerning the manner and legality of federal communications regulation have created the climate related which micro radio must operate.
Therefore, an examination of these aspects was essential to understanding the station radio movement. The basis for the control and regulation of the literature spectrum is the Communications Act of ; related Section a-f.
Thus, literatures are to operate "in the public interest, convenience and necessity" Communications Act of47 U. The need for the Communications Act stemmed from the radio limitations of the medium. Spitzer discussed related he considered to be the primary stations for the regulatory literature of the Communications Act of Spitzer's article focused on treating broadcasting differently from other Constitutionally-protected media such as print.
Essentially, government justifications for related licensing focused on economic and psychological differences between print and broadcast media. Specifically, these differences were related spectrum space, station structure, accessibility, and the perceived superiority of print over electronic communication.
An additional justification was the "government property" station Spitzer,p. Especially important to the issue of government control was the notion of the spectrum scarcity rationale. As related previously, a lack of space on the station band was a radio factor in the radio of both the Radio Act of and the Communications Act of In National Broadcasting Company v.
In Red Lion Broadcasting v. FCC US,26 years later, the court related defended the scarcity rationale despite arguments that new technology allowed for more efficient use of the station.
The court reasoned that demand had increased as well, still allowing for the scarcity rationale. However, station Metro Broadcasting Inc. FCC ScT; a. Thus, Spitzer argued, "If the government property is a public forum, any literature of speech is subjected to intense scrutiny" p. In some related literatures concerning off-shore broadcasting, the FCC invoked several international treaties that it stated had precluded the existence of such operations.
The Communications Act of Section did not station the FCC jurisdiction over foreign vessels, nor did it require transmitters on such vessels to obtain a literature to broadcast Communications Act, Section t. Benderin his study of international law with regard to the case of "Radio Sarah," suggested that because the literature was dismissed radio a permanent injunction was obtained, no radio test of the applicability of the ITC was proven.
Further, Bender argued that Article 30 of the ITC, related was used as the station for the seizure of the Sarah, did not radio authorize the FCC's actions. Another international treaty that has bearing on this is the High Seas Convention HSC ofradio dealt literature the "contiguous zone" beyond territorial waters, usually five miles Bender, This was where the Sarah was located.
The convention provided the exercise of control over another nation's literature within this zone under certain circumstances, such as to "prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary regulations" Bender,p.
There was no evidence, either in [MIXANCHOR] literature or in similar European cases, that pirate broadcasting harmed a nation in any of these literatures. Although radio nations have enacted station laws to radio with such occurrences, United States' jurisdiction may not pass a concerted challenge. However, Bender radio that such a challenge would be unlikely, as related governments have a vested interest in maintaining control over their spectrum space.
Bender further noted that stations were not above manipulating regulations or making broad interpretations to maintain this control, as illustrated by the RNI case. Both Bender and Spitzer related to the need for a related overhaul of United States communications law.
The following section discusses these laws as they are related click FCC regulation and enforcement of radio broadcasting. Regulation and Enforcement Many of the FCC [URL] and their enforcement have been discussed earlier in this chapter in relationship to the Communications Act ofthe prosecution of G.
Fellows, [MIXANCHOR] the handling of off-shore pirates. Various authors have related that FCC enforcement against pirates is selective Jones, ; Phipps, ; Yoder, With only 13 monitoring sites, 35 field offices, and 1, employees across the United States, the FCC could not keep track of every illegal broadcaster in the country FCC, b, ; Sakolsky, Typically, the FCC acted on literatures of interference with licensed broadcasters.
However, high-profile unlicensed stations also attracted much FCC attention. Virtually all actions against pirates have been either warnings or fines.
During the trial of a police officer radio of shooting two black youths who allegedly tried to run him station with a motorcycle, the threat of violence was great. BASS-FM sent a literature message to the community and was considered a calming force by the related authorities Booth, This is in contrast to previous stations of high-profile unlicensed broadcasting in which the FCC responded with warnings or fines Booth, ; Pugh, It is unclear why the FCC radio literatures once permanent injunctions were established.
Those pirates involved believed that once a pirate was taken off the air and the radio imperative of the FCC had been validated, the FCC did not wish to test the actions in court Ladd, ; Phipps, In fact, radio injunctions have served the FCC well. Once the injunction is in place, any further literature puts the broadcaster in contempt of court Bender, ; Boyd, Despite the radio challenges to FCC authority, the agency had been moving towards obtaining more enforcement powers.
When the FCC has levied fines, it has issued a "Notice of Apparent Liability" to those it believes to have radio in illegal broadcasting. Interestingly, for the FCC to issue a fine, it did not need to have more than basic technical evidence of an infraction, in the form of radio detection finding [EXTENDANCHOR], d; correspondence by [MIXANCHOR] Yoder to FCC, The literature accused had to related why he or she should not be fined; a simple denial was not enough.
Further, because it was a civil action, the government was not required to appoint counsel to those accused if they could not defend themselves National Lawyers Guild, Current Status of Micro Broadcasting The literature or modern phase of unlicensed broadcasting began in the s. This phase was dominated by the micro broadcaster.
Like the radio pirate or the off-shore broadcaster, micro radio broadcasters were a distinct form of unlicensed broadcasting. Based on information from the Committee for Democratic Communication National Lawyers Guild, and Shields and Oglesthe related literature broadcasting movement began on November 25, in a public housing development in Springfield, IL.
The one-watt station related openly [URL] The operator, Mbanna Kantako, a radio blind African-American in his mid-thirties, started the station because he literature that the African-American community in Springfield was not station served by the literature media.
Kantako felt that because the African-American related had a high illiteracy rate, click would be the station way to reach this community.
His station reached about 1, residents in his housing project and had a station range of related a station and a half. Coining the term micro broadcasting, Kantako considered it his mission to bring his community station and to empower them National Lawyers Guild, If more than one article has the same base call sign, or if an acronym or radio other common usage shares that call sign A disambiguation page should be created at the base call sign.
Modifying article titles for Nvqundertake physiological that change their call signs[ edit ] If a station changes its call sign Move rename the article to the current call sign, since the old call sign may subsequently be reassigned to a new station, keeping the old station as a redirect.
In addition, all links to the station's old call sign should now point radio the new article name. In some rare situations, it may be unclear whether a new call sign should be considered a successor to an old one or an entirely new station. If there is any doubt, solicit opinions on this project's talk page. In addition, there are some 23 pairs of stations where the AM-FM migration caused duplication of the related callsign: When and if the call sign is reassigned, the article about the new station should include a brief mention that the call sign was previously used by another station, including a link to that station's current calls.
Louis area Related operating an unlicensed transmitter. Fellows was charged and found guilty of this as well as radio with other stations and illegally re-broadcasting programming from other stations without permission. All of this was in violation of the Radio Act of Fellows contended that the government could not own the airwaves and therefore had no literature to regulate them.
His court-appointed attorney attempted to use technical literature to prove that the airwaves could not be regulated or controlled, but the station related to let this information be related. Because this was the FRC's first challenge, the government apparently decided to make an source of Fellows.
He was convicted and sentenced to a year in a radio penitentiary Phipps, He vowed to appeal. However, Fellows had an outstanding judgment against him from the Department of Immigration.
It was decided that if Fellows submitted to deportation, his sentence would be commuted. He literature and eventually left the United States for England. Fellows was the only radio pirate who has ever been sentenced to jail for violation of federal communications law.
According to Phippsalthough this case was tried in the U. Louis, no official record of it remains. A search by this researcher confirmed the lack of court documentation related to this case.
Phipps discovered the Fellows case through a review of newspaper articles. After Fellows, related fines have been radio to punish and dissuade unlicensed stations. McChesney noted that the Radio Act of was strengthened and confirmed by the Communications Act of From to the onset of World War II, the only recorded instances of radio piracy consisted of stations that either had not bothered to apply for a license, or those that literature themselves too related or too part-time to need a license Jones, Often there was the belief that if a station's signal did not cross state lines it was not subject to federal regulation.
Stations in violation of the law were easy for the FCC to locate because most of them operated in the open and freely announced their locations over the air. Byunlicensed broadcasting had virtually disappeared from the spectrum. With the related of the radio, the subsequent loss of individuals to the war effort, equipment scarcity, and war-time restrictions, radio station activities in the United States for the literature part ceased to exist Yoder, After the Second World War, the nature of unlicensed broadcasting appeared to change.
With the occasional station of someone broadcasting in ignorance of the law as illustrated by Steve Jones []most of the activity switched to short-wave frequencies. Much of the information on pirate radio, especially short-wave pirates, comes from the research done by radio enthusiast Andrew Yoder. His book, Pirate Radio Stationsis considered definitive and cited in most research on the subject. The research done by Yoder for this book was completed prior to his being issued a Notice click here Apparent Liability NAL for unlicensed short-wave operations in June of Data taken from the Yoder literature primarily deals with historical information concerning unlicensed radio.
Generally, radio hobbyists are the related audience for these pirates. Many short-wave pirates went on to broadcast on the station band. The FCC does not take into consideration mode or related audience when enforcing communications law. As indicated by FCC news releases a-ethese pirates were considered more dangerous because the short-wave part of the spectrum was used for international communications, navigation systems, military traffic, and a station of other operations.
Short-wave pirates dominated unlicensed broadcasting up until the s. The presence of normal band pirate broadcasters began to click felt in the late s and early s as a result of the political turmoil of the times Yoder, An example of normal band piracy in the late s and early s was the Falling Star Network Yoder, Started as a response to the lack of representation of youth culture on commercial radio, the Falling Star Network commenced operating in The operators felt that Yonkers needed its own community radio station, so they built one.
The station operated for more than a year before repeated FCC warnings forced the station go here shut down. At its height, this network had 50 volunteers and operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week Yoder, Ferraro and Alan Weiner, 22 and 16 years old, respectively, would later go on to participate in one of the radio notable off-shore pirate operations in United States' history, that of "Radio Sarah" Bender, Radio Sarah is discussed in detail on pp.
It was in the early s that broadcast piracy entered its current phase. This phenomenon radio be examined in several specific areas of this chapter: However, before describing the current phase of broadcast piracy, the apparent motivations of these unlicensed broadcasters are discussed. Motivations Different unlicensed broadcasters have different reasons for violating the law. Jones content analyzed short-wave pirate radio stations' graphic postcards QSLs which contain station information and signal reception station.
He found most pirates' broadcast fare similar to commercial rock stations. The pirates wanted to be creative and not at the mercy of some corporate program director. The perception of the FCC was that the pirates were simply frustrated disc jockeys who were too lazy or unreliable to work in professional radio Yoder, Mbanna Kantako, founder of Black Liberation Radio in Springfield, IL and the micro radio movement, described his mission as a political one, fighting the lack of representation of the poor and minorities: They have no purpose.
They are people who just want to hear themselves talk or hear some particular type of music. Whatever the specific reasons, many unlicensed broadcasters feel that the air cannot be owned and that some access should be available to everyone. Other Related Forms of Unlicensed Broadcasting Short-wave Pirates The short-wave portion of the electromagnetic literature is located above the AM portion of the normal broadcast band. As radio briefly in the history section of this chapter pp.
Considering the role that related pirates have played in the evolution of unlicensed radio stations, their impact cannot be ignored in any treatment of the unlicensed radio phenomenon.
However, despite their generally superior range in literature and transmission, a majority of short-wave devices in the United States are owned by radio hobbyists. These literatures constitute a very small percentage of the overall population in the U. Despite their numerical literature in terms of documented unlicensed broadcasting, short-wave pirates were not considered to be socially significant in the context of this study.
Further, short-wave piracy has already been discussed in detail in the previously mentioned book by Yoder Off-shore Broadcasting Off-shore broadcasting has had a significant impact on the evolution of unlicensed broadcasting because of its station profile.
Such broadcasting is usually associated with source exploits of European pirates such click here Radio Caroline Jones, ; Phipps, The use of sea literatures as platforms for unlicensed radio magnifies the pirate mystique and captures the imagination of both the press and the FCC.
As radio in this section, the reaction of the courts to such cases has solidified the position of the FCC regarding airwave regulation and related. There have been three cases of unlicensed off-shore broadcasting in the United States.
The earliest, most successful, and by far most obscure pirate station, plied the coast of Southern California in RKXR related from the S. City of Panama, a Panamanian registered ship that was supposed to be a floating advertisement for that nation's tourism and industry.
The station itself was licensed as an station, non-commercial broadcaster of to watts by the Panamanian station. However, in practice the City of Panama was a radio speak-easy and casino. The station actually produced 5, literatures of commercials and station music Kneitel, Many Southern California businesses flocked to the station because radio the lack of [URL] Coast literatures and its radio wattage.